Glossary

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abhaya mudra [ab-hy-yuh MOO-druh] - open-palmed hand gesture seen on Hindu and Buddhist images that means “fear not.”
Aizen Myō’ō [AY-zen myoh] - Buddhist deity with Hindu origins.
Amida [AH-mee-dah] - a Buddha; he presides over the Pure Land or Western Paradise and is widely venerated in Japan.
Avalokiteshvara [aa-vuh-LO-kee-TAYSH-vuh-ruh] - literally, “the Lord Who Looks Down [From on High]”; the widely worshiped bodhisattva of compassion who protects and saves all beings.
avatar [aa-VUH-taar] - a divine manifestation on earth.
aya [AY-ah] - literally, “verse,” in the Qur’an.

baraka [bah-RA-kah] - a blessing.
Bhagavad Gita [bha-guh-VAD GEE-tuh] - the teaching of Krishna within the larger Mahabharata epic. Dating to circa 200 BCE–300 CE, it is one of the most influential Hindu philosophical texts.
Bhagavata Purana [bha-guh-VAAT poo-RA-nuh] - composed between the eighth and tenth centuries CE, this important text, which is dedicated to Vishnu, contains a detailed account of Krishna’s life on earth.
bhakti [BHAK-tee] - a form of devotion that stresses a personal connection to one’s chosen deity.
Bhumisparsha mudra [bhoo-MEE-sparsh-UH MOO-druh] - literally, “touching the earth” mudra; a gesture with fingers pointing downward, symbolizing the moment when the Buddha attained enlightenment under the bodhi tree.
bismillah [BISS-mil-lah] - the abbreviation of the three words that appear at the beginning of each chapter in the Qur’an. The phrase translates to “In the name of God, The Most Compassionate, Most Merciful.”
Bodh Gaya [BODE GAI-yah] - site of the tree under which Siddhartha Gautama became the Buddha. Located in the state of Bihar, in northeastern India, it is a major pilgrimage center for Buddhists.
bodhi [BO-dee] - literally, “awakening”; the emergence out of ignorance into a profound and complete understanding of the world. This leads to liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, facilitating entry into nirvana.
bodhisattva [BO-dee-SAAT-vuh] - literally, “enlightenment being”; a person who, inspired by compassion, vows to become a Buddha for the benefit of all sentient beings.
Brahman [BRAH-mun] - the transcendent, formless, and infinite ground of all being.
Buddha [BOOD-huh] - literally, “Awakened One”; a being who has awakened to the true reality of existence and is thereby liberated from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. A Buddha teaches others the path to enlightenment.
Buddhahood [BOOD-huh-hood] - the state of being a Buddha and the goal of all bodhisattvas.
Buddhism [BOOD-hiz-uhm] - a widespread Asian religion founded by the Historical Buddha in northern India in the fifth century BCE.

chakra [CHAK-ruh] - a Sanskrit word that means “wheel” or “cycle.” It is a symbol of Buddhist dharma. When Vishnu holds a chakra; it is a weapon, somewhat like a ninja star, for restoring harmony on earth.
Chan [chen] - the Chinese term for Zen Buddhism.
chinzō [CHIN-zoh] - a Japanese term for portraits of Buddhist priests.
chloritic schist - a greenish-colored metamorphic rock containing elements of chlorite. Its softness allows for detailed sculpting work.
Chola dynasty [CHO-luh] - the family that dominated the region of Tamil-speaking southern India and built an empire that lasted from the ninth to the thirteenth century CE through networks of regional rulers.
chromolithograph - a multicolored print produced by lithography, a method of surface printing combining oil-based ink and water on a stone. This method, invented in the eighteenth century, allowed for the production of multiple copies of prints or posters.
Chūan Kinkō [CHOO-un KIN-koh] - Japanese painter and Zen monk, active in the early to mid-fifteenth century.
circumambulate - to walk or move around a sacred object or site.
colophon - a statement at the end of a text with information about the making and makers of the manuscript, such as artist, patron, date, and place of production.

Dainichi [DY-nee-chee] - the Cosmic Buddha, one of countless Buddhas in the universe.
Dakshinamurti [DAK-shee-na-MOOR-tee] - a manifestation (or form) of the god Shiva as a guru, or teacher.
darshan [DAR-shun] - during worship, the act of seeing and being seen by a deity.
Dasavatar [DAS-aa-vuh-TAAR] - the ten avatars of the god Vishnu.
Deccan plateau [dek-KAN] - from a Sanskrit word meaning “south,” this plateau region in the south-central region of the Indian subcontinent is located between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats.
dharma [DHAR-muh] - a term of unique importance in Indian culture that has several meanings. In Buddhism, it refers to the Buddha’s teachings or doctrines. In Hindu traditions, dharma refers to the moral code that governs proper behavior.
dhyana [DYAH-nah] - a Sanskrit term for “meditation.”
Durga [DOOR-guh] - a major goddess of Hindu traditions. She is associated with strength, protection, and the slaying of demons.
Durga Puja [DOOR-guh POOJ-uh] - a celebration in honor of the goddess Durga.

Ebaradera [EY-buh-ruh-dey-ruh] - Buddhist temple in Sakai, Osaka Prefecture.
Edo [EH-doh] - a city in Japan, modern-day Tokyo. It was the seat of the shogun and namesake of the Edo period.
enlightenment - a moment of great wisdom and understanding; the highest level of consciousness, believed to be achieved through meditation and adhering to the basic moral teachings of Buddhism.
esoteric Buddhism [BOOD-hiz-uhm] - Buddhist teachings that are conveyed secretly or implicitly and are held to be beyond the understanding of ordinary persons. Vajrayana Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism are esoteric Buddhist traditions.

Falnama [FAL-na-meh] - Book of Omens, a manuscript from sixteenth-century Iran used to foretell the unknown.
Fatiha [FA-tee-hah] - the first chapter of the Qur’an.
folio - the back and front of a leaf in a book; the term is usually used in the context of handwritten manuscripts. page – refers to only one side of a leaf and is used in the context of printed books.
Four Noble Truths - Buddhist teaching on how to overcome suffering and attain enlightenment.

Gandhara [Gan-DHAA-ruh] - an ancient region encompassing present-day Pakistan and parts of Afghanistan.
Ganesha [ga-NE-shuh] - the elephant-headed god; son of Shiva and Parvati. He is the remover of obstacles and the deity of new beginnings.
Ganesha Chaturthi [ga-NE-shuh cha-TOOR-tee] - a ten-day festival that marks the birth of Ganesha, celebrated in August–September; also commonly known as Ganesh Chaturthi.
Gaofeng Yuanmiao [gao-FUNG yoo-EN-meow] - (1238–1295) Chinese Zen monk, twenty-eighth patriarch of Zen Buddhism.
Gita Govinda [GEE-tuh go-vin-duh] - or “Song of Krishna”; a twelfth-century Sanskrit text written by the Hindu poet Jayadeva. It recounts the stories of Lord Krishna and the gopis.
gopi [go-pee] - female cowherd devotee of Krishna; exemplars of bhakti devotion to Krishna.
guru [goo-roo] - literally, “heavy”; in Hindu traditions, a personal spiritual teacher or guide.

hadith [ha-DEETH] - literally, “tradition”; a body of text, comprising the sayings and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad, especially with regard to daily conduct. It was recorded by the Prophet’s companions after his death in 632 and is second to the Qur’an in religious importance in Islam.
hajj [HAJ] - pilgrimage to Mecca at a specific time of the year; one of the five pillars of Islam.
Hanuman [HA-noom-aan] - a deity with the body of a monkey; a companion of the deity Rama and an exemplar of self-discipline and devotion.
Heian [HEY-un] - a former capital of Japan, modern-day Kyoto. It is the namesake of the historical Heian period, 794–1185.
Hōunji [HOH-un-jee] - Japanese Zen temple in Ibaragi Prefecture.
Hoysala dynasty [HOY-sa-la] - a south Indian dynasty that ruled most of the modern Indian state of Karnataka from the tenth to fourteenth centuries.

Ibrahim [ib-RAH-heem] - Arabic name for the prophet Abraham.
Ilkhanids [il-KHAAN-idz] - a Mongol dynasty that ruled over Iran and Central Asia from 1256 to 1335.
illumination - an embellishment of manuscripts with gold pigment or gold leaf, which was often combined with other pigments, such as lapis lazuli (derived from a semiprecious stone).
Indra [IN-druh] - an ancient deity of storms and weather first mentioned in the Vedas.
iqra [ihk-RAH] - recitation.
Iran [E-rAn] - a country in the Middle East.
Iraq [E-rAq] - a country in the Middle East.

Jingtu [JING-too] - Pure Land Buddhism in which Amida Buddha is the main object of worship. It is the Chinese term for the Japanese “Jōdo.”
Jōdo [JOH-doh] - Pure Land Buddhism in which Amida Buddha is the main object of worship. It is the Japanese term for the Chinese “Jingtu.”
juz [JOOZ] - a section of the Qur’an.

Kama [KUH-muh] - the Hindu deity symbolizing love.
Kamakura [kama-KOO-ra] - a city in Eastern Japan. It is the namesake of the historical Kamakura period, 1185–1333.
karma [KAAR-muh] - literally, “action”; the cumulative effect of all good and bad actions that a being performs over many lifetimes, determining his or her future suffering, happiness, and favorable or unfavorable rebirths.
Kenchōji [ken-CHOH-jee] - Japanese Zen temple in Kanagawa Prefecture.
khutba [KOOT-bah] - a sermon.
kiswa [KIS-wuh] - black cloth draped over the Ka’ba.
Krishna [KRISH-nah] - a major deity and an avatar of the god Vishnu, considered by some to be of equal or greater importance than Vishnu. The most popular and widely worshiped avatars of Vishnu are Krishna and Rama.
kufic [KOO-fik] - an angular script that was used for transcribing the Qur’an from the late eighth to the eleventh century; it was also employed for Qur’anic inscriptions on objects and buildings.
Kūkai [KOO-kye] - (774–835) – Japanese Buddhist priest who brought Shingon Buddhism from China to Japan.

lama [LAH-muh] - a Tibetan Buddhist monk.

madrasa [mah-DRAH-sah] - a religious school.
Mahabharata [MA-huh-PAA-ruh-tuh] - one of India’s two great epics, composed roughly between the second century BCE and the fourth century CE.
Mahadevi [MA-huh-DAY-vee] - the Great Goddess, who has many different names and many different forms.
Mahayana [MA-huh-yaa-nuh] - literally, “Great Vehicle”; a major Buddhist movement that emerged sometime before the second century CE and produced a large body of sacred texts. Encompassing several schools of practice, Mahayana encourages practitioners to follow the bodhisattva path and strive to become Buddhas.
Mahisha [ma-HEE-shuh] - the powerful buffalo demon who is defeated by the goddess Durga.
Mamluk [MAM-look] - a dynasty that ruled over Syria and Egypt from 1250 to 1517.
mandala [MUN-du-luh] - a schematic rendering of the Buddhist cosmos and complex Buddhist beliefs.
mantra [MAAN-truh] - sacred syllables that effect change when recited in their original Sanskrit.
manuscript [man-yoo-skript] - a handwritten text.
mappō [MUP-poh] - the final period of decline of the Buddhist Law. Japanese Buddhism determined that it began in the eleventh century.
masjid [mass-jeed] - mosque.
Mecca [MEK-uh] - Makka or Makkah [MAK-kuh] – the holiest site in Islam, located in the Hijaz region in the western part of present-day Saudi Arabia. The Ka’ba is located in Mecca.
Medina [ma-DEE-na] - the second holiest site in Islam, which is some 270 miles north of Mecca. The Prophet fled from Mecca to Medina in 622, which also marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar. Here, he established the Muslim community (ummah). The Prophet is also buried in Medina.
meteorite - a solid piece of debris from a comet or another body in outer space, which survives traveling through the atmosphere to reach the earth.
mihrab [mih-RAHB] - a niche in a religious structure that indicates the direction of Mecca toward which Muslims turn during their prayers.
minbar [MIN-bar] - a pulpit, usually with stairs, in a mosque from which to deliver sermons.
monotheism - the belief in one God. The three major monotheistic religions are Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
mudra [MOOD-ruh] - a symbolic gesture of the hands or pose of the whole body found in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain art.
muhaqqaq [moo-HA-ghagh] - a cursive script with tall verticals and sweeping horizontal strokes, known for its legibility.

Navaratri [NA-vuh-RAA-tree] - a holiday or festival lasting nine nights to celebrate Durga’s defeat of the buffalo demon Mahisha, representing the triumph of good over evil.
nimbus - a flickering “cloud” of flames surrounding the head of a prophet to suggest sanctity.
Niō [nee-OH] - guardian statues, or “Benevolent Kings,” that can be found in Buddhist temples throughout Japan.
nirvana [ner-va-nuh] - literally, “extinction”; having attained enlightenment, the state in which all past karma is destroyed and no future karma is produced, resulting in release from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.

padmasana [pad-MAA-suh-nuh] - a seated meditation posture with crossed legs.
Pala-Sena dynasty [PA-luh-SAY-nuh] - the dynasty that ruled a kingdom that extended across what is now the Indian state of West Bengal and the country of Bangladesh from 750 to 1204.
parinirvana [pa-REE-ner-vaa-nuh] - literally, “final nirvana”; the stage that an enlightened being reaches at death in which freedom from the effects of karma results in no future rebirths.
Parvati [PAR-vuh-tee] - a Hindu goddess; wife of Shiva and mother of Ganesha.
prophet - an intermediary who speaks to humanity on behalf of God.

Quraysh [koo-RAYSH] - name of a confederation of Arab tribes that controlled Mecca and were guardians of the Ka’ba.

Radha [RAAD-huh] - beloved of the god Krishna.
Rāgarāja [ruh-guh-RUH-juh] - Sanskrit name of Aizen Myō’ō.
Rahim [rah-HEEM] - literally, the “Compassionate,” in reference to God.
Rahman [rah-MAHN] - literally, the “Merciful,” in reference to God.
raigō [RYE-goh] - “welcoming approach” of Amida Buddha to gather the spirit of a deceased person and carry it back to the Pure Land.
Rama [RAA-muh] - a major deity, one of the most popular avatars of Vishnu.
Ramayana [ruh-MAY-uh-nuh] - the great epic of Rama.
Rasikapriya [RAAS-ick-uh PREE-yuh] - literally, “Connoisseur’s Delights”; a manual of poetics written by Keshav Das in 1591 that was wildly popular in the Hindu and Muslim courts of northern India.
Ravana [RAAV-uh-nuh] - demon king of Lanka in the epic Ramayana.
relic - an object venerated because of its association with a holy person’s life or body (e.g., bones, pieces of clothing, hair, begging bowl).
relief - a sculpture with a slight projection from a flat surface.

Safavids [SAF-uh-vidz] - a dynasty that ruled over modern-day Iran and part of Afghanistan from 1501 to 1722.
salat [sah-LAHT] - act of prayer; one of the five pillars of Islam.
Salman al-Farsi [sal-MAHN al-FAHR-see] - an early Persian convert to Islam and a trusted companion of the Prophet.
samsara [SAAM-saa-ruh] - literally, “wandering”; the continuous and inherently unsatisfactory existence over countless lifetimes in a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.
Sanskrit [san-SKRIT] - the Indian language in which the earliest Hindu hymns, as well as many later scriptures, were composed. A cosmopolitan language used across South and Southeast Asia for centuries, it is the language of numerous Buddhist texts. Buddhist texts known or believed to have been translated from Sanskrit are considered authoritative.
sawn [SAHN] - act of fasting; one of the five pillars of Islam.
shahada [shuh-HAH-duh] - Muslim profession of faith; one of the five pillars of Islam.
Shaiva [SHY-vuh] - a devotee to the Hindu god Shiva and the members of his divine family.
Shakyamuni [SHAK-yuh-MOON-ee] - literally, “Sage of the Shakya Clan”; the Historical Buddha. His given name was Siddhartha Gautama. He lived in northeastern India sometime after the fifth century BCE.
Shaytan [shay-TAHN] - Arabic and Persian name for Satan.
Shingon [SHING-gone] - one of the schools of esoteric Buddhism in Japan, originally from China.
Shiva [SHI-vuh] - one of the most important and widely revered Hindu deities.
Siddhartha Gautama [sid-HAAR-tuh gow-ta-muh] - the given name of the Historical Buddha, Shakyamuni.
stupa [STOOP-uh] - a Buddhist reliquary; stupas range in size from monumental to handheld.
sura [SOO-rah] - literally, “chapter,” in the Qur’an.
sutra [SOOT-ruh] - literally, “aphorism”; a scripture recording a sermon or teaching attributed to the Historical Buddha.

tantra [TAAN-truh] - medieval Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain system of ritual and theory. Each religion has its own distinctive goals of self-deification and the means to realize that goal.
Tendai [TEN-dye] - one of the schools of esoteric Buddhism in Japan, originally from China.
Thakur Ajit Singh of Ghanerao [ta-KOOR uh-jeet seengh of ga-nuh-rau] - a Hindu nobleman (thakur) who lived in northwest India.
thuluth [thoo-LOOTH] - a cursive script reserved primarily for monumental inscriptions on buildings or objects or as titles in manuscripts.

Uma [OOM-uh] - alternate name for the goddess Parvati.
ummah [OO-mah] - literally, “community,” in Arabic.
umrah [OOM-rah] - pilgrimage to Mecca any time of the year.
urna [OOR-nuh] - a curl of hair on the forehead of a Buddha; one of the thirty-two marks of a great man.
ushnisha [oosh-NEE-shuh] - a protrusion from the top of the skull of a Buddha, sometimes depicted as a knot of hair; one of the thirty-two marks of a great man.

vahana [VAA-hu-nuh] - an animal that serves as a mount or vehicle for a Hindu deity and that is honored as the deity’s most loyal devotee.
Vairochana [VY-RO-chu-nuh] - Sanskrit name of Dainichi, the Cosmic Buddha.
vajra [vaj-RUH] - literally, “thunderbolt” or “adamantine”; both a common symbol and a ritual implement used in tantric Buddhism to express the power and indestructibility of its teachings and the speed at which Buddhahood can occur when these teachings are followed.
Vajrasattva [VUDGE-ruh-sutt-vah] - literally, “Diamond Being” or “Thunderbolt Being”; a bodhisattva in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.
Vajrayana [vaj-RUH-yaa-nuh] - literally, “Thunderbolt Vehicle”; also known as tantric or esoteric Buddhism, this tradition is based on practices described in tantras that employ mantras, mandalas, mudras, and meditative visualizations utilizing sexual and violent imagery. So potent are these practices that they are secret, requiring initiation by a guru and promising Buddhahood in this lifetime.
Vesak [VAY-sak] - an important Buddhist festival commemorating the birth, enlightenment, and death of the Buddha. It is celebrated at the full moon in the month of Vaishaka (April–May).
Vishnu [VISH-noo] - one of the principal deities of the Hindu traditions. He is the object of devotion for the Vaishnavas and the preserver of the universe. He has taken physical form as human avatars, such as Rama and Krishna.
Vishvarupa [VISH-va-ROOP-uh] - the infinite cosmic form of Vishnu and Krishna.

wudhu [WOO-dhoo] - purification ritual using water before prayer.

Yamuna River [YAA-moo-nuh] - a major river that runs through Tibet, India, and Bangladesh. In Hindu tradition, the Yamuna River is an aspect of the Great Goddess.
yosegi-zukuri [YOH-sey-guee ZOO-koo-ree] - a method of making sculptures in Japan by assembling individually carved pieces, such as arms, torso, and legs.
Yuan dynasty [yoo-EN] - a dynasty that ruled China from 1271 to 1368.

zakat [zuh-KAHT] - a form of almsgiving to support the needy; one of the five pillars of Islam.
Zam Zam [zahm zahm] - a well in Mecca, believed to have divine origins and special medicinal properties.
Zhongfeng Mingben [JONG-fung MING-ben] - (1263–1323) – a prominent Chinese Chan priest.

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